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==Arghun's proposals for a new crusade (1284-1291)== [[Image:ArghunLetterToPhilippeLeBelExtract1289.jpg|thumb|1289 letter of [[Arghun]] to [[Philip the Fair]], in the [[Sogdian alphabet|Uyghur script]], with detail of the introduction. The letter was remitted to the French king by [[Buscarel of Gisolfe]]. The seal is that of the Great Khan, in Chinese characters: "Seal of the upholder of the State and the purveyor of peace to the People". The paper is of [[Korean]] manufacture. 182x25 cm. [[French National Archives]].<ref>''Grands Documents de l'Histoire de France'', Archives Nationales de France, p.38, 2007.</ref>]] The new Mongol ruler [[Arghun]], son of Abaqa, again revived the idea of an alliance with the West, and sent envoys to Europe. He promised that if Jerusalem were conquered, he would have himself baptised. But Western Europe was no longer as interested in the crusades, and the missions were ultimately fruitless,<ref>Prawdin, p. 372. "Argun revived the idea of an alliance with the West, and envoys from the Ilkhans once more visited European courts. He promised the Christians the Holy Land, and declared that as soon as they had conquered Jerusalem he would have himself baptised there. The Pope sent the envoys on to Philip the Fair of France and to Edward I of England. But themission was fruitless. Western Europe was no longer interested in crusading adventures.</ref> except for the dispatch of a corps of 800 Genoese to the Mongol realm to establish a naval raiding force in the [[Indian Ocean]]. During his reign, the Mamluks continuously increased their power in Syria, and the Sultan Qalawun managed to capture the northern fortress of [[Margat]] in 1285, [[Lattakia]] in 1287, and completing the [[Fall of Tripoli]] in [[1289]] and the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Fall of Acre]] in [[1291]] managed to eliminate the last major Christian bases in the Levant.<ref>Tyerman, p.817</ref> ===First mission to the Pope=== In 1285, Arghun sent an embassy and a letter to Pope [[Honorius IV]], a Latin translation of which is preserved in the [[Vatican]].<ref name=runciman-398>Runciman, p.398</ref><ref>"This Arghon loved the Christians very much, and several times asked to the Pope and the king of France how they could together destroy all the Sarazins" - Le Templier de Tyr - French original:"Cestu Argon ama mout les crestiens et plusors fois manda au pape et au roy de France trayter coment yaus et luy puissent de tout les Sarazins destruire" [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/GuillaumeTyr5.html Guillame de Tyr (William of Tyre) "Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum" #591] <!--Recommend moving this to Wikiquote --> </ref> Arghun's letter mentioned the links that Arghun's family had to Christianity, and proposed a combined military conquest of Muslim lands:<ref>"The Crusades Through Arab Eyes" p. 254: Arghun, grandon of Hulegu, "had resurrected the most cherished dream of his predecessors: to form an alliance with the Occidentals and thus to trap the Mamluk sultanate in a pincer movement. Regular contacts were established between Tabriz and Rome with a view to organizing a joint expedition, or at least a concerted one."</ref> {{quote|"As the land of the Muslims, that is, Syria and Egypt, is placed between us and you, we will encircle and strangle ("estrengebimus") it. We will send our messengers to ask you to send an army to Egypt, so that us on one side, and you on the other, we can, with good warriors, take it over. Let us know through secure messengers when you would like this to happen. We will chase the [[Saracens]], with the help of the Lord, the Pope, and the Great Khan."|Extract from the 1285 letter from Arghun to Honorius IV, Vatican<ref>Quote in "Histoires des Croisades III", Rene Grousset, p700</ref>}} ===Second mission, to Kings Philip and Edward=== [[Image:DebateBetweenCatholicsAndOrientalChristiansInThe13thCenturyAcre1290.jpg|thumb|right|Debate between Western Christians (left) and [[Assyrian Church of the East|Oriental Christians]] (right) in the 13th century. Miniature from [[Acre]], circa 1290.]] Apparently left without an answer, Arghun sent another embassy to European rulers in 1287, headed by the Nestorian [[Rabban Bar Sauma]], with the objective of contracting a military alliance to fight the Muslims in the Middle East, and take the city of [[Jerusalem]].<ref name=runciman-398/> The responses were positive but vague. Sauma returned in 1288 with positive letters from Pope [[Nicholas IV]], [[Edward I of England]], and [[Philip IV the Fair]] of France.<ref>Boyle, in Camb. Hist. Iran V, pp. 370-71; Budge, pp. 165-97. [http://www.encyclopediairanica.com/articles/v10f2/v10f216a.html Source]</ref> According to the medieval Syriac History of the two Nestorian Chinese monks, Bar Sawma of Khan Balik and Markos of Kawshang, as translated in Sir Wallis Budge's book ''The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China'', Philip seemingly responded positively to the request of the embassy, gave him numerous presents, and sent one of his noblemen, Gobert de Helleville, to accompany Bar Sauma back to Mongol lands: {{quote|"And the King Philip said: if it be indeed so that the Mongols, though they are not Christians, are going to fight against the Arabs for the capture of Jerusalem, it is meet especially for us that we should fight [with them], and if our Lord willeth, go forth in full strength. . . And he said unto us, "I will send with you one of the great Amirs whom I have here with me to give an answer to King Arghon"; and the king gave Rabban Sawma gifts and apparel of great price."|"The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China<ref> http://www.aina.org/books/mokk/mokk.htm</ref>}}<!-- Recommend deleting this quote. It's a third-party view of a medieval historian, and not necessarily reliable. --> [[Image:VoyagesOfRabbanBarSauma.jpg|thumb|[[Rabban Bar Sauma]] travelled from Pekin in the East, to Rome, Paris and Bordeaux in the West, meeting with the major rulers of the period, even before [[Marco Polo]]'s return from Asia.<!-- We need a paragraph somewhere about Marco Polo -->]] Gobert de Helleville departed on February 2, 1288, with two clerics Robert de Senlis and Guillaume de Bruyères, as well as arbaletier Audin de Bourges. They joined Bar Sauma in Rome, and accompanied him to Persia.<ref>"Histoires des Croisades III", Rene Grousset, quoting "La Flor des Estoires d'Orient" by [[Haiton]]</ref> According to a medieval historian, King Edward was also said to have welcomed the embassy enthusiastically: {{quote|"King Edward rejoiced greatly, and he was especially glad when Rabban Sauma talked about the matter of Jerusalem. And he said "We the kings of these cities bear upon our bodies the sign of the Cross, and we have no subject of thought except this matter. And my mind is relieved on the subject about which I have been thinking, when I hear that King Arghun thinketh as I think"|Account of the travels of Rabban Bar Sauma, Chap. VII.<ref>"The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China", Sir E. A. Wallis Budge [http://www.aina.org/books/mokk/mokk.htm Source]</ref>}}<!-- Recommend deleting this quote. It's a third-party view of a medieval historian, and not necessarily reliable. --> In one of his letters, Nicholas IV also recognized the role of many Franks in the service of the Il-Khan, among them Ugi de Sienne, ''ilduci'' in the Guard of the Il-Khan, who would also bring a message to the West.<ref>Richard, "Histoire des Croisades", p.469</ref> ===Christian missions to Mongol China from 1289=== {{main|Medieval Roman Catholic Missions in China}} This period saw the start of major Christian missions to Mongol China, which would last until the fall of Mongol power and the establishment of the [[Ming Dynasty]] a century later. In [[1289]], Pope Nicholas IV sent the Franciscan [[John of Monte Corvino]] to [[China]] by way of [[India]], thereby bypassing [[Karakorum]].<ref>Foltz, p.130</ref> Although the great Khan [[Kubilai Khan|Kubilai]] had already died by the time John arrived ([[1294]]), the court at [[Khanbaliq]] received him graciously and encouraged him to settle there. John was China’s first [[Roman Catholic]] [[missionary]], and he was significantly successful. He laboured largely in the [[Mongolian language|Mongol tongue]], translated the [[New testament]] and [[Psalms]], built a central church, and within a few years (by [[1305]]) could report six thousand baptized converts. He also established a lay training school of 150 students. Other priests joined him and centers were established in the coastal provinces of [[Kiangsu]] ([[Yangchow]]), [[Chekiang]] ([[Hangchow]]) and [[Fukien]] ([[Zaitun]]). ===Third mission=== [[Image:Philippe IV Le Bel.jpg|thumb|[[Philip the Fair]] (1268-1314) sent an ambassador to the court of the Mongol leader [[Arghun]] (1258-1291), to try and arrange details of an alliance.<ref>Runciman, p. 399</ref> But Arghun died before anything could be achieved.<ref name=runciman-402/>]] In 1289, Arghun sent a third mission to Europe, in the person of [[Buscarel of Gisolfe]], a Genoese who had settled in Persia. The objective of the mission was to determine at what date concerted Christian and Mongol efforts could start. Arghun committed to march his troops as soon as the Crusaders had disembarked at [[Saint-Jean-d'Acre]]. Buscarel was in Rome between July 15 and September 30, 1289, and in Paris in November-December 1289. He remitted a letter from Arghun to Philippe le Bel, answering to Philippe's own letter and promises, offering the city of Jerusalem as a potential prize, and attempting to fix the date of the offensive from the winter of 1290 to spring of 1291:<ref>Runciman, p.401</ref> {{quote|"Under the power of the eternal sky, the message of the great king, Arghun, to the king of France..., said: I have accepted the word that you forwarded by the messengers under Saymer Sagura ([[Rabban Bar Sauma|Bar Sauma]]), saying that if the warriors of Il Khaan invade Egypt you would support them. We would also lend our support by going there at the end of the Tiger year’s winter [1290], worshiping the sky, and settle in Damascus in the early spring [1291]. If you send your warriors as promised and conquer Egypt, worshiping the sky, then I shall give you Jerusalem. If any of our warriors arrive later than arranged, all will be futile and no one will benefit. If you care to please give me your impressions, and I would also be very willing to accept any samples of French opulence that you care to burden your messengers with. I send this to you by Myckeril and say: All will be known by the power of the sky and the greatness of kings. This letter was scribed on the sixth of the early summer in the year of the Ox at Ho’ndlon."|Letter from Arghun to Philippe le Bel, 1289, France royal archives<ref>[http://chass.colostate-pueblo.edu/history/seminar/sauma/saumaletter.htm Alternative translation of Arghun's letter]</ref><ref>For another translation [http://www.pony-express.net/west-east/china/expo/catalogue_text/cat32_text.html here]</ref>}} <!-- Excellent quote that should be kept :) --> Buscarello was also bearing a memorandum explaining that the Mongol ruler would prepare all necessary supplies for the Crusaders, as well as 30,000 horses.<ref>Jean Richard, p.468</ref> Buscarel then went to England to bring Arghun's message to [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. He arrived in London January 5, 1290. Edward, whose answer has been preserved, answered enthusiastically to the project but remained evasive about its actual implementation, for which he deferred to the Pope.<ref>"Histoire des Croisades III", p.713, Rene Grousset.</ref> ====Assembly of a raiding naval force==== In a concrete example of military collaboration, a maritime raiding force consisting in two war galleys was prepared in [[Baghdad]] by a corps of Genoese, in order to curtail the maritime trade of the Mamluks. A contingent of 800 Genoese carpenters and sailors was sent in 1290 to Baghdad, as well as a force of arbaletiers, but the enterprise apparently foundered when the Genoese government ultimatey disowned the project, and an internal fight erupted at the [[Persian Gulf]] port of [[Basra]] among the Geneose (between the Guelfe and the Gibelin families).<ref>"Only a contingent of 800 Genoese arrived, whom he (Arghun) employed in 1290 in building shipd at Baghdad, with a view to harassing Egyptian commerce at the southern approaches to the Red Sea", p.169, Peter Jackson, ''The Mongols and the West''</ref><ref>Jean Richard, p.468</ref> ===Fourth mission=== [[Image:SiegeOfAcre1291.jpg|thumb|With the [[Fall of Acre]] in May 1291, the last major Christian city in the Levant disappeared.]] Arghun then sent a fourth mission to European courts in 1290, led by a certain Andrew Zagan (or Chagan), who was accompanied by Buscarel of Gisolfe and a Christian named Sahadin.<ref>Runciman, p.402</ref> As a result, with Acre in great danger, [[Pope Nicolas IV]] proclaimed a Crusade and negotiated agreements with Arghun, [[Hetoum II]] of Armenia, the [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Jacobites]], the [[Ethiopians]] and the [[Georgians]]. On January 5, 1291, he addressed a vibrant prayer to all the Christians to save the Holy Land, and predicators started to rally Christians to follow Edward I in a Crusade.<ref>Dailliez, p.324-325</ref> However, all these attempts to mount a combined offensive were too little and too late. On May 18th 1291, [[Saint-Jean-d'Acre]] was conquered by the Mamluks in the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Siege of Acre]]. In August 1291, Nicholas IV wrote a letter to Arghun informing him of the plans of Edward I to go on a Crusade to recapture the Holy Land, and explaining that the Crusade could only be successful with the help of the "powerful arm" of the Mongols.<ref>Schein, p.809</ref> He asked Arghun to reiceive baptism and to march against the Mamluks.<ref>Jackson, p.169</ref> However Arghun himself had died on March 10, 1291, and Pope Nicholas IV would die in March 1292, putting an end to their efforts towards combined action.<ref>Runciman, p.412</ref> Edward I sent an ambassador to Arghun's successor [[Gaikhatu]] in 1292 in the person of [[Geoffrey de Langley]], but extensive contacts would only resume under Arghun's son [[Ghazan]]. According to the 20th century historian Runciman, "Had the Mongol alliance been achieved and honestly implemented by the West, the existence of [[Outremer]] would almost certainly have been prolonged. The Mameluks would have been crippled if not destroyed; and the Ilkhanate of Persia would have survived as a power friendly to the Christians and the West"<ref name=runciman-402>Runciman, p.402</ref>
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