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==Collaboration in the Middle East (1258-1260)== [[Image:HulaguAndDokuzKathun.JPG|thumb|[[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]] with his Christian queen [[Dokuz Khatun]]. Hulagu conquered Muslim Syria, in collaboration with Christian forces from Cilician Armenia, Georgia, and Antioch.]] A certain amount of military collaboration between the Christians and the Mongols did not really take place until 1258-1260, when [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]] of [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]] and [[County of Tripoli|Tripoli]], the Christian [[Cilician Armenia|Armenians]] under his father-in-law [[Hetoum I of Armenia|Hetoum I]], and the Christian [[History of Georgia (country)|Georgians]] combined forces with the Mongols under [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]]. Hetoum I had also himself visited the court of [[Mangu Khan]] at [[Karakorum]] in 1254 to renew the Cilician-Mongol alliance.<ref name=bournotian-101>Bournotian, p. 101</ref><ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/GuillaumeTyr4.html Guillaume de Tyr, Chap. II]. The event is mentionned and quoted in Runciman.</ref> The leader of the Ilkhanid section of the Mongol Empire, Hulagu, was generally favourable to Christianity. He was the son of a Christian woman, [[Sorghaghtani Beki]], and one of his most important generals, [[Kitbuqa]], was a [[Naiman]] [[Christian]]. The years from 1258 to 1260 brought both some of the greatest Mongol victories in the region, and their first major defeat. On the one hand, the combined forces of the Mongols with their Christian allies (or vassals) successfully conquered Syria, and in Iraq they conquered the center of the most powerful Islamic dynasty in existence at that time, that of the [[Abbasids]] in Baghdad. On the other hand, because of the neutrality of the Franks in Acre, and the passive alliance which was struck between the Franks and the Egyptian Mamluks, in late 1260 the Mamluks achieved a decisive victory against the Mongols at the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. This action effectively stopped the Mongol expansion into the area, and set the western border for the Mongol Empire. ===Bohemond VI and the Mongols=== [[Image:LittleArmeniaPrincipality of AntiochTripoli.jpg|thumb|Among the Christian allies (some say vassals) of the Mongols, Bohemond VI ruled over the Frankish state of the [[Principality of Antioch]], and to the south of it, the [[County of Tripoli]] (both in green), and his father-in-law [[Hetoum I of Armenia|Hetoum I]] ruled over [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Little Armenia]] (in blue).]] Sometime in the 1250s, [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]], Frank ruler of the [[Principality of Antioch]] and the [[County of Tripoli]], and one of the Outremer's most important power-brokers,<ref>"Bohemond VI, briefly one of Outremer's most important power broker", Tyerman, p.806</ref> allied (or submitted) to the Mongols.<ref>"Bohemond of Antioch-Tripoli became their [the Mongol's] ally” John Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, p.136</ref><ref>"Hethoum's attempts to build a great Christian alliance to aid the Mongols was well received by the local Christian; and Bohemond of Antioch, who was under his father-in-law's influence, gave his adhesion. But the Franks of Asia held aloof.", Runciman, p.299</ref><ref>"The Armenians, in the person of king Hethoum, sided with the Mongols, as did Bohemond of Antioch". Amin Maalouf, p.261 (Les Croisades vues par les Arabes). Also: "Bohemond of Antioch and Hethoum of Armenia, principal allies of the Mongols". Amin Maalouf, p.265 (Les Croisades vues par les Arabes)</ref> The Principality of Antioch was the most ancient of the Frankish realms, and its capital [[Antioch]] was the largest Frank city in the Levant.<ref>Amin Maalouf, "Les Croisades..", p267</ref> Some historians also describe that Bohemond submitted to Mongol and accepted their overlordship to become their vassal.<ref>"Customary marks of submission to which Bohemond VI ... had had to conform." (Jean Richard, p. 422).</ref> According to the historian Reuven Amitai-Preiss however, Bohemond showed "unreserved support for the Mongols".<ref>"Bohemond VI's unreserved support for the Mongols was probably looked upon with disfavor by the leaders of Acre. The Papal legate was certainly displeased: he excommunicated Bohemond early in 1260.", in ''Mongols and Mamluks'', p.39</ref> There is a possibility that Antioch had actually become a tributary of the Mongols even earlier: in 1247 the Dominicans under [[Carpini]] placed the limit of Mongol dominions 2 days' journey south of Antioch, and [[Matthew Paris]] included [[Bohemond V]] among those who in 1246 became tributary to the Mongols.<ref>Jackson, p.103</ref> According to [[Alain Demurger]] and De Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Cilician Armenia as well as Antioch and Tripoli were paying tribute and supplying troops to the Mongols since 1247.<ref>Demurger, "Jacques de Molay", p.55. "The Count of Tripoli and Prince of Antioch (the two state had the same ruler), and the king of Cilician Armenia (or Little Armenia) had made their submission to the Mongols. Since 1247 already, they had paid tribute and supplied troops. King Hetoum I went to Karakorum to make his submission in 1253, and Bohemond VI was present in Baghdad in 1258."</ref><ref>De Reuven Amitai-Preiss ''Mongols and Mamluks'', p.24 "Already in 1246, it is reported that [[Bohemond V]] of Antioch, along with king [[Hetoum I|Hetoum]] of Cilician Armenia had become tributary of the Mongols"</ref> Bohemond was certainly induced into this alliance by his father-in-law the Armenian king [[Hetoum I]], with whom he was closely connected since a rapprochement organized by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in 1254, and concretized by Bohemond's marriage with the daughter of the Armenian ruler.<ref>Bohemond entered in a relationship with the Mongols because of pressure from his father-in-law Hethoum I: "The principality of Antioch was dominated by its Armenian neighbour -- it was through the will of the Armenian king that the Antiochenes came to aid Hulegu in 1259-60." ("The Logic of Conquest" Al-Masaq, v. 14, No.1, March 2002, p. 8)</ref> Hetoum's own association with the Mongols had netted him some rich rewards, since his own submission in 1247. Bohemond resided permanently in Tripoli and from 1254 left the daily management of his dominion of Antioch to the Armenians, so that Antiochian Franks were drawn into the long-standing Armeno-Mongol alliance.<ref>''The Islamic World in Ascendency: From the Arab conquest to the Siege of Vienna'' by Dr. Martin Sicker (p.111): "Bohemond, however, resided exclusively in Tripoli and, as a practical matter, [[Hetoum I|Hetoum]], whose realm was contiguous with it, ruled Antioch. Accordingly, Antioch was drawn into the Mongolian-Armenian alliance".</ref> When the Principality of Antioch joined with the Mongols, a Mongol representative and a Mongol garrison were stationed in the capital city of Antioch, where they remained until the capture of the city by the Mamluks in 1268.<ref>"Bohemond VI, briefly one of Outremer's most important power broker, had already accepted Mongol overlordship, with a Mongol resident and battalion stationed in Antioch itself, where they stayed until the fall of the city to the Mamluks in 1268". Tyerman, p. 806</ref> In return for Bohemond's submission, and Bohemond's acceptance of the restoration of a [[List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch|Greek patriarch]], [[Euthymius the Great|Euthymius]], to the patriarchate of Antioch, Hulagu returned to Bohemond all the Antiochene territories which had been lost to the Muslims in 1243. These included [[Darkush]], [[Kafar-dubbin]], [[Laodicea]], and [[Jableh|Jabala]], which Bohemond re-claimed with Templar help.<ref>Jean Richard, p.425</ref><ref name=tyerman-806>Tyerman, p. 806. The Frankish Antiochenes assisted in the Mongols' capture of Aleppo, thus in part achieving a very traditional Frankish target, and had received lands in reward."</ref> For his relations with the Mongols, Bohemond was temporarily excommunicated by [[Pope Urban IV|Jacques Pantaléon]], the [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]].<ref>[http://www.the-orb.net/textbooks/crusade/antioch.html Online Reference Book for Medieval studies]</ref><ref>Runciman, p.307, "Bohemond was excommunicated by the Pope for this alliance (Urban IV, ''Registres'', 26 May 1263</ref><ref>Saunders, p. 115</ref> At the time, the Patriarch saw the Mongols as a clear threat, and had written to the Pope to warn him about them in 1256. In 1259 and 1260, [[Pope Alexander IV]] had even been encouraging a new Crusade against the Mongols. Alexander had put Bohemond's case on the agenda of his upcoming council (as well as the cases of Hetoum I of Armenia, and [[Daniel of Moscow | Daniel of Russia]]).<ref>Jean Richard, p.423</ref> However, Alexander died in 1261, just months before the Council could be convened, and before the new Crusade could be launched. For a new Pope, the choice fell to Pantaléon, the same Patriarch of Jerusalem who had earlier been warning of the Mongol threat. He took the name [[Pope Urban IV]], and tried to raise money for a new crusade, but could not succeed, since the French clergy pointed out that there was a truce with the Muslims. In May 1263, Pope Urban, having heard Bohemond's explanation, suspended his excommunication sentence.<ref>Jean Richard, p.426</ref> ===Christian involvement in the conquest of Baghdad (1258)=== {{main|Siege of Baghdad}} [[Image:Hulagu Baghdad 1258.jpg|thumb|Mongol attack of Baghdad (1258).]] On February 15, 1258, the Mongols were successful in the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Siege of Baghdad]], an event often considered as the single most catastrophic event in the history of Islam. The attacking army also had a large contingent of Christian forces. The [[History of Georgia (country)|Georgian]]s and Armenians participated in the offensive,<ref>Grousset, p.574, mentionning the account of [[Kirakos]], [http://rbedrosian.com/kg12.htm Kirakos, #12]</ref><ref>"After this, [the Mongols] convened a great assembly of the old and new cavalry of the Georgians and Armenians and went against the city of Baghdad with a countless multitude." [http://rbedrosian.com/ga2.htm Grigor of Akner's History of the Nation of Archers, Chap 12], circa 1300</ref> and possibly some Frankish troops from the [[Principality of Antioch]].<ref>In [[Alain Demurger]]'s ''Jacques de Molay'', p.55: "The Count of Tripoli and Prince of Antioch (the two state had the same ruler), and the king of Cilician Armenia (or Little Armenia) had made their submission to the Mongols. Since 1247 already, they had paid tribute and supplied troops. King Hetoum I went to Karakorum to make his submission in 1253, and Bohemond VI was present in Baghdad in 1258." In Demurger ''Les Templiers'' (p.80-81): "The main adversary of the Mongols in the Middle-East was the Mamluk Sultanate and the Califate of Baghdad; in 1258 they take the city, sack it, massacre the population and exterminate the Abassid familly who ruled the Califate since 750; the king of [[Little Armenia]] (of [[Cilicia]]) and the troops of [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]] participated to the fight and the looting together with the Mongols." In Demurger ''Croisades et Croisés au Moyen-Age'' (p.284): "The Franks of Tripoli and Antioch, just as the Armenians of Cilicia who since the submission of [[Asia Minor]] in 1243 had to recognize Mongol overlordship and pay tribute, participated to the capture of Baghdad."</ref> When they conquered the city, the Mongols demolished buildings, burned entire neighborhoods, and massacred nearly 80,000 men, women, and children. The Georgians had been the first to breach the walls, and were among the fiercest in their destruction.<ref>"The Georgian troops, who had been the first to break through the walls, were particularly fiercest in their destruction" Runciman, p.303</ref> At the intervention of the Mongol Hulagu's Nestorian Christian wife [[Dokuz Khatun]], the Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Maalouf, p. 243</ref><ref>"A history of the Crusades", Steven Runciman, p.306</ref> Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian Catholicus [[Mar Makikha]], and ordered a cathedral to be built for him.<ref>Foltz, p.123</ref> The conquest of Baghdad marked the tragic end of the [[Abbasid|Abbasid Caliphate]]. The city of Baghdad, which had been the jewel of Islam and one of the largest and most powerful cities in the world for 500 years, became a minor provincial town. ===Participation of the Franks to the Mongol invasion of the Levant (1260)=== [[Image:1260MongolConquestsLevant.jpg|thumb|1260 Mongol offensive in the Levant.]] After Baghdad, in 1260 the Mongol forces, along with their Christian allies, conquered Muslim [[Syria]], domain of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]]. They took the city of [[Aleppo]] with the help of the Franks of Antioch,<ref>Tyerman, p.806 "The Frankish Antiochenes assisted the Mongols' capture of Aleppo".</ref> and on [[March 1]], [[1260]] proceeded to capture [[Damascus]],<ref>[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200704/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm Saudi Aramco World "The Battle of Ain Jalut"]</ref><ref name=grousset-581/> under the Christian Mongol general [[Kitbuqa]]. Numerous historians, some of them quoting [[Le Templier de Tyr]], explain that Kitbuqa entered the city of Damascus in triumph together with Hethoum and Bohemond VI, and that great Christian celebrations were made.<ref>Grousset, p.586: "We known from Le Templier de Tyr that the king of Armenia Hetoum I and the Prince of Antioch Bohemond VI accompanied Kitbuqa in this offensive: "The king of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch went to the army of the Tartars and went to take Damas"."</ref><ref>"On 1 March Kitbuqa entered Damascus at the head of a Mongol army. With him were the King of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch. The citizens of the ancient capital of the Caliphate saw for the first time for six centuries three Christian potentates ride in triumph through their streets", Runciman, p.307</ref><ref>Jean Richard, p.423: "Bohemond... supported Hulegu with his troops in the siege of Aleppo; he also occupied [[Baalbek]], and entering into Damascus with the Mongols, had the satisfaction of celebrating mass in the great Mosque"</ref><ref>"On March 1st 1260, Damascus had to let general Kitbuqa inside its walls. He was accompanied by king Hetoum and Prince Bohemond" [[Jean-Paul Roux]], ''Histoire de l'Empire Mongol'', p.346</ref><ref>"The Mongols then attacked Muslim Syria, and they were accompanied by Hetoum and his son-in-law Bohemond when they took Aleppo and Damascus", [[Claude Mutafian]], p.58</ref> According to [[Peter Jackson]], writing in 1980, Bohemond VI of Antioch was said to be present in some later accounts but not in contemporary sources, and it is likely a later legend.<ref>Peter Jackson, "Crisis in the Holy Land in 1260," ''English Historical Review 376 (1980) 486</ref> In 2005 however, Peter Jackson wrote that Bohemond is recorded to have participated to the Mongol conquest of [[Baalbek]], not far from Damascus, and that he may have ridden into Damascus with the Mongols.<ref>Jackson, "The Mongols and the West", p.117. Jackson also references Al-Yunani as recording Bohemond in Ba'labakk (Baalbek), and later asking to receive the land from the Mongols.</ref> The historian De Reuven Amitai-Preiss concludes that the accounts may be exagerated, but have some truth to them, and says of Bohemond VI that after his passage at Baalbek "it is most probable that he also passed through Damascus".<ref>"While this report cannot be taken literally, it may contain a grain of truth. Armenian troops were part of Ketbuqa's force, while some time during the Mongol occupation Bohemond visited [[Baalbek]] and even intended to ask Hulegu for possession of the town. (...) If this prince reached as far as Baalbek, it is most probable that he also passed through Damascus." De Reuven Amitai-Preiss, "Mongols and Mamluks", p.31</ref> According to the contemporary account of Le Templier de Tyr, mass was celebrated in the [[Umayyad Mosque|Grand Mosque of the Umayyads]] (the former cathedral of Saint [[John the Baptist]]),<ref>Jean Richard, p.423</ref>, and numerous mosques were profaned: {{quote|"The king of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch went to the army of the Tatars, and they all went off to take Damascus. When Damascus was taken, the Prince, to the shame of the Sarasins, established a beautiful church, which at the time of the Greeks used to belong to the Christians, and where since then the Sarasins had prayed Mahomet. The Prince had mass held for the Franks and the bells rung. In the other mosques of Mahomet, where the Sarazins were, shrubs were placed, wine was sprayed on the walls, and fresh pork grease was smeared. And if he commanded his people to do some dirt, they would do tenfold."|''Gestes des Chiprois'', Le Templier de Tyr, quoted in "Histoire des Croisades III", René Grousset<ref>"Le roy d'Arménie et le Prince d'Antioche alèrent en l'ost des Tatars et furent à prendre Damas...". Quoted in "Histoire des Croisades III", Rene Grousset, p586</ref>}} On the contrary the southern Franks of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were weary of the Mongols, but their policy was rather incoherent.<ref>Demurger, "Jacques de Molay", p.55-56</ref> At the beginning of 1260, the Templars and knights from the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] launched an offensive against the Muslim cities of [[Tibnin]] and [[Tiberias]]. The offensive was a failure, and ended with many knights being imprisoned, including [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]] and [[Thibaud Gaudin]], future Grand Masters of the Templars, so that they had to be ransommed. Afterwards however, the southern Franks made a passive alliance with the Mamluks, which facilitated the Mamluk victory over the Mongols at [[Ain Jalut]].<ref>Demurger, "Jacques de Molay", p.55-56</ref> The Mongol invasion effectively destroyed the [[Ayyubid Dynasty]], who had been overthrown in Egypt ten years before but had held on in Syria. The last Ayyubid king [[An-Nasir Yusuf]] died in 1260.<ref>Atlas des Croisades, p.108</ref> With the Islamic power centers of Baghdad and Damascus gone, the center of Islamic power transferred to the Egyptian Mamluks in Cairo. After the victory, Hulagu gave numerous gifts to Bohemond VI, including some of the conquered cities, including [[Lattakieh]].<ref>"Subsequently, Hulegu sent presents to [sent for, oe41] the duke of Antioch [Bohemond VI] who was a relative of the King of Armenia [son-in-law of the King of Armenia, oe41], and ordered that all the districts [g50] of his kingdom which the Saracens had held be returned to him. He also bestowed many other favors on him." [http://rbedrosian.com/hetum3.htm Fleur des Histoires d'Orient, Chap.29]</ref> But then because of a new internal conflict in [[Turkestan]], Hulagu had to stop the Mongol invasion before it reached Egypt, and departed with the bulk of his forces, leaving only about 10,000 Mongol horsemen in Syria under Kitbuqa to occupy the conquered territory,<ref>Runciman, p.310</ref> including [[Nablus]] and [[Gaza]] in the south, as well as the fortress of [[Ajlun]], east of [[River Jordan]].<ref>Grousset, p.586</ref> The Mongols engaged in raids southward towards Egypt, reaching as far as [[Ascalon]] and [[Jerusalem]], and a Mongol garrison of about 1,000 was placed in Gaza,<ref>Jean Richard, p.428</ref><ref>Amin Maalouf, p.264</ref><ref>Tyerman, p.806</ref> with another garrison located in [[Naplouse]].<ref>Amin Maalouf, p.262</ref> Runciman considers that Nablus and Gaza were occupied, but that Jerusalem itself was not reached by the Mongols.<ref name=runciman-308/> The Mongols however claimed repeatedly that they had remitted Jerusalem to the Christians on this occasion.<ref>"Hulegu informed Louis IX that he had handed over the Holy City to the Franks already, during the brief Mongol occupation in 1260 (although, as we have seen, this is nowhere indicated in any of the Muslim sources, still less in the Frankish appeals for help to the West), and the claim was reiterated in 1274 by Abaqa's envoys.", Jackson, p.174</ref> ===Sidon incident (1260)=== [[Image:Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din 1305.JPG|thumb|Mongol soldiers, in ''[[Jami al-Tawarikh]]'' by [[Rashid al-Din]], 1305-1306.]] With Mongol territory now bordering the Franks, a few incidents occurred, one of them leading to large-scale trouble in [[Sidon]]. [[Julian de Grenier]], [[Lordship of Sidon|Lord of Sidon]] and [[Beaufort Castle, Lebanon|Beaufort]], described by his contemporaries as irresponsible and light-headed, took the opportunity to raid and plunder the area of the Bekaa in Mongol territory. When the Mongol general Kitbuqa sent his nephew with a small force to obtain redress, they were ambushed and killed by Julian. Kitbuqa responded forcefully by raiding the city of Sidon, although the Castle of the city was left unattained.<ref name=runciman-308/><ref>"It happened that some men from Sidon and Belfort gathered together, went to the Saracens' villages and fields, looted them, killed many Saracens and took others into captivity together with a great deal of livestock. A certain nephew of Kit-Bugha who resided there, taking along but few cavalry, pursued the Christians who had done these things to tell them on his uncle's behalf to leave the booty. But some of the Christians attacked and killed him and some other Tartars. When Kit-Bugha learned of this, he immediately took the city of the Sidon and destroyed most of the walls [and killed as many Christians as he found. But the people of Sidon fled to an island, and only a few were slain. oe43]. Thereafter the Tartars no longer trusted the Christians, nor the Christians the Tartars." [http://rbedrosian.com/hetum3.htm Fleur des Histoires d'Orient, Chap. 30]</ref> Another similar incident occurred when [[John II of Beirut]] and some Templars led a raid into [[Galilee]].<ref>Runciman, p.309</ref> These events generated a significant level of distrust between the Mongols and the Crusader forces, whose own center of power was now in the coastal city of Acre. The incidents also raised the ire of the Mamluk leader [[Baibars]]. He declared that the treaty that had been signed between the Crusaders and the Mamluks in 1240 had been invalidated when Christian forces assisted the Mongols to capture Damascus. He demanded the evacuation of Saphet and Beaufort, and when the Christians balked, Baibars used that as his excuse to violate the pre-existing truce, and start launching new attacks on such settlements as [[Nazareth]], [[Mount Tabor]], and [[Bethlehem]].<ref>Richard, p. 416 (english)</ref> ===Battle of Ain Jalut (1260)=== The Franks of the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli and the Armenians aside, in 1260, the Franks of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] maintained a position of cautious neutrality between the Mongols and the Mamluks. The powerful Venetian commercial interests in the city regarded with concern the expansion of the northern trade routes opened by the Mongols and serviced by the [[Genoese]], and they favoured an appeasement policy with the Mamluks, that would support their traditional trade routes to the south. In May 1260 they sent a letter to [[Charles of Anjou]], complaining about Mongol expansion and Bohemond's subservience to them, and asking for his support.<ref>Runciman, p.307</ref> They did send the Dominican [[David of Ashby]] to the court of Hulagu in 1260,<ref>Encyclopedia Iranica article</ref> but also entered into a passive alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks, which allowed the Mamluk forces to move through Christian territory unhampered,<ref>Runciman, p.312</ref> in exchange for an agreement to purchase captured Mongol horses at a low price in the event of a Mamluk victory (a promisse which was not honoured by the Mamluks).<ref>"They allowed the Mamluks to cross their territory, in exchange for a promesse to be able to purchase at a low price the horses captured from the Mongols", Richard, "Histoire des Croisades", p.425</ref> This allowed the Mamluks to counter-attack the Mongols, at the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] on September 3, 1260. It was the first major battle that the Mongols lost, and effectively set the western border for what had seemed an unstoppable Mongol expansion. According to the 13th century historian [[Kirakos]], many Armenians and Georgians were also fighting in the ranks of Kitbuqa.<ref>"Among Ket-Bugha's warriors were many Armenians and Georgians who were killed with him" [http://rbedrosian.com/kg12.htm Kirikos, Chap. 62]</ref> The Armenian historian Smpad writes that about 500 troops from Armenia accompanied the Mongols.<ref>"These, however, were not all Mongol horsemen, but included contingents from Georgia and Lesser Armenia; Smpad writes that the latter numbered 500 men." ''Mongols and Mamluks'', p.40</ref> Following Ain Jalut, the remainder of the Mongol army retreated to Cilician Armenia under the commander Ilka, where it was received and re-equipped by Hetoum I. Hulagu sent a counter-attack which briefly occupied Aleppo, but it was repelled by the princes of [[Hama]] and [[Homs]], subjects to the Sultan.<ref>Jean Richard, p.428</ref>
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