Franco-Mongol alliance

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This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franco-Mongol_alliance&oldid=184475120 "Franco-Mongol alliance"].  
{{Mongol alliances}}
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[[Image:LittleArmeniaPrincipality_of_AntiochTripoli.jpg|thumb|Among the Christian states in the Levant, the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] (in blue) and the northern Frank realms of the [[Principality of Antioch]] and the [[County of Tripoli]] (green) were the most regular allies/subjects of the Mongols, and supplied troops to participate in Mongol campaigns.]]
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''This page was discussed [http://groups.google.com/group/soc.genealogy.medieval/browse_thread/thread/262654cbaf945c24#a6e2b557e42a1abc here] at Soc.Genealogy.Medieval''
Many attempts were made towards forming a '''Franco-Mongol alliance''' between the mid-1200s and the early 1300s, starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. According to various historians, these attempts evolved into a regular alliance, complete with military cooperation,<ref>Authors presenting the alliance as an actual occurence:
+
 
*[[René Grousset]] mentions especially "Louis IX and the Franco-Mongol alliance" (p521), "Only Edward I understood the value of the Mongol alliance" (p.653) "Edward I and the Mongol alliance" (p.653), "Edward I renewed the precious Mongol Alliance" (in "L'épopée des Croisades", p.301), "The Franco-Mongol coalition, of which the Hospitallers were giving the example" (p.686)
+
Many attempts were made towards forming a '''Franco-Mongol alliance''' between the mid-1200s and the early 1300s, starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. According to various historians, these attempts evolved into a regular alliance, complete with military cooperation. In this context, the term [[Franks]] designates all western Europeans, but especially those associated with the [[Crusader States]])Between the 11th to the 15th century, the [[Crusaders]] were usually called Franks,<sup>1</sup> and the [[Mongols]] are those of the [[Il-Khanate]], located in [[Persia]]. This alliance occured in the mid-1200s to the early 1300s.
*[[Jean Richard (historian)|Jean Richard]] in ''Histoire des Croisades'', has the Franco-Mongol alliance start in earnest in the 1260s ("The sustained attacks of Baibars (...) rallied the Occidentals to this alliance, to which the Mongols also convinced the Byzantines to adhere", in "Histoire des Croisades", p.453.) and continue on-and-off until it was strongly revived by Ghazan, to continue to have an influence until 1322 ("In 1297 Ghazan resumes his projects against Egypt (...) the Franco-Mongol cooperation had thus survived, to the loss of Acre by the Franks, and to the conversion of the khan to Islam. It was to remain one of the political factors of the policy of the Crusades, until the peace treaty with the Mamluks, which was concluded in 1322 by khan Abu Said." in "Histoire des Croisades", p.468). He concludes on the many missed opportunities the alliance offered: "The Franco-Mongol alliance (...) seems to have been rich with missed opportunities" in "Histoire des Croisades", 1996, Jean Richard, p.469
+
*'''Reuven Amitai-Preiss''' in ''Mongols and Mamluks'' writes that "Under Bohemond VI, the northern Franks maintained their unequivocal pro-Mongol alliance after 'Ayn Jālūt" (p.54). She also writes about the "Mongol-Frankish rapprochement" (''Mamluk perceptions of the Mongol-Frankish rapprochement'', MHR 7 (1992), p.50-65)
+
*'''Dr. Martin Sicker''', in ''The Islamic World Ascendancy'' (p.113): "[[Kitbuqa|Ket-Buqa]] and Bohemond VI fully appreciated the mutual advantages of the Frank-Mongol alliance".
+
*[[Jean-Paul Roux]], in ''Histoire de l'Empire Mongol'' ISBN 2213031649, has a chapter on the "Frank alliance" with the Mongols. He describes the continuation of this alliance until the time of [[Oljeitu]]: "The Occident was reassured that the Mongol alliance had not ceased with the conversion of the Khans to Islam. However, this alliance could not have ceased. The Mamelouks, through their repeated military actions, were becoming a strong enough danger to force Iran to maintain relations with Europe.", p.437
+
*[[Claude Mutafian]] in ''Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie'' describes "the Mongol alliance" entered into by the king of Armenia and the Franks of Antioch ("the King of Armenia decided to engage into the Mongol alliance, an intelligence that the Latin barons lacked, except for Antioch"), and "the Franco-Mongol collaboration" (Mutafian, p.55)
+
*[[Zoe Oldenbourg]] in ''The Crusades'' mentions the 1280 "Alliance of Franks and Mongols against Qalawun". (Oldenbourg, "The Crusades", p.620)
+
*[[Alain Demurger]], in the 2002 [[Jacques de Molay]] biography ''The Last Templar'', refers to it as the "Mongol alliance", which came to fruition through such events as the 1300 combined offensives between the Templars and the Mongols.(Demurger, p.147 "This expedition sealed by a concrete act the Mongol alliance"), "The strategy of the Mongol alliance in action(Demurger p.145) "De Molay led the fight for the reconquest of Jerusalem by relying on an alliance with the Mongols", back cover)
+
*'''Jonathan Riley-Smith''' mentions in his ''Atlas of the Crusades'' that in 1285 the Hospitallers of the north agreed to ally to the Mongols.("En 1285, Qalawun, nouveau sultan mamelouk, reprend l'offensive, qu'il dirige contre les Hospitaliers du nord, qui s'etaient montres prets a s'allier aux Mongols", Jonathan Riley-Smith, "Atlas des Croisades", p.114) He also describes Bohemond's alliance with the Mongols: "Bohemond VI of Antioch-Tripoli became their [the Mongol's] ally", in ''History of the Crusades'', p.136
+
*[[Laurent Dailliez]], in ''Les Templiers'', mentions that the [[Knights Templar]] allied with the Mongols, and that [[Jacques de Molay]] signed a treaty with them against the Muslim "their common enemy".("The Mongols, after taking Damascus and several important cities from the Turks, after having been routed by the Sultan of Egypt at Tiberiade in 1260, allied themselves with the Templars. Jacques de Molay, in his letter to the king of England said that he had to sign such a treaty to fight against the Muslims, "our common enemy"" Dailliez, p.306-307)
+
*'''Christopher Tyerman''', in ''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'', does mention the existence of "The Mongol alliance", although he specifies that in the end it led nowhere,("The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere" p.816) and turned out to be a "false hope for Outremer as for the rest of Christendom." (pp. 798-799) He further describes successes and failures of this alliance from 1248 to 1291, with Louis IX's early attempts at capturing "the chimera of a Franco-Mongol anti-Islamic alliance", Bohemond VI's alliance with the Mongols and their joint victories, and Edward's largely unsuccessful attempts.
+
*[[Peter Jackson]] in ''The Mongols and the West'' entitles a whole chapter "An ally against Islam: the Mongols in the Near East" and describes all the viscicitudes and the actual limited results of the Mongol alliance.
+
*'''Claude Lebedel''' in ''Les Croisades'' describes the alliance of the Franks of Antioch and Tripoli with the Mongols: (in 1260) "the Frank barons refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the Armenians and the Prince of Antioch and Tripoli".
+
*[[Amin Maalouf]] in ''The Crusades through Arab eyes'' is extensive and specific on the alliance (page numbers refer to the French edition): “The Armenians, in the person of their king Hetoum, sided with the Mongols, as well as Prince Bohemond, his son-in-law. The Franks of Acre however adopted a position of neutrality favourable to the muslims” (p.261), “Bohemond of Antioch and Hethoum of Armenia, principal allies of the Mongols” (p.265), “Hulagu (…) still had enough strength to prevent the punishment of his allies [Bohemond and Hethoum]” (p.267), “..the Hospitallers. These monk-horsemen allied with the Mongols, going as far as fighting at their side in a new attempt at invasion in 1281."
+
*'''Sylvia Schein''' in ''Gesta Dei per Mongolos'' describes the Templars, Hospitallers and crusaders of Cyprus as allies of the Mongols in the campaings of 1300-1302: "They (the Templars, Hospitallers and crusaders of Cyprus) sailed to the island of Ruad, and, from that base, captured Tortosa, but retired a few days later when their allies (the Mongols) did not appear.", p.811
+
*'''Patrick Huchet''' in ''Les Templiers, une fabuleuse epopee'' relates that "Jacques de Molay, elected Master in 1292, associated himself with the Mongols to set up military operations on the island of Ruad (near Tortose)."'''
+
*'''E. L. Skip Knox''', Boise State University, in ''The Fall of Outremer'' [http://crusades.boisestate.edu/FallOfOutremer/05.shtml online]: "Some of the Crusader States wanted to form an alliance with the Mongols, while others weren't so sure. The allure of destroying Egypt was great, but the Mongols were pretty scary allies. In the end, Armenia and Antioch joined, along with the Templars and Hospitallers." also [http://crusades.boisestate.edu/FallOfOutremer/08.shtml here]: "A double army marched down from the north and east, crossing the Euphrates in 1281. Qalavun marched north and they met near Homs on 30 October. Once again, Christians fought alongside the Mongols (the Hospitallers and the Armenians this time)".
+
*'''Martin Sicker''' in ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'' (Page 113) focuses on the first invasion of Syria in 1258-1260 and mentions an end to the Franco-Mongol alliance after the events of Sidon: "Suitably provoked, the Mongols responded by pillaging Sidon, thereby bringing an effective end to the Frank-Mongol alliance."
+
*'''Emmanuel Berl''' in ''Histoire de l'Europe'' (p. 219) writes about the "Franco-Mongol rapprochement".
+
*'''Bernard de Vaulx''' in ''History of the Missions'' (p. 53) writes about the Franco- Mongol alliance.
+
*'''Peter W. Edbury ''' in ''The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191-1374'' (p. 92) mentions the Franco-Mongol alliance, and gives as an example that the Mongol staged an attack to coincide with the Frank offensive during the Crusade of Edward I. 
+
*''Encyclopedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature..'', p.100: "The fact that the Mongols were in ostensible alliance with Christians princes led to a renewal by the sultan of the ordinances against Jews and Christians."</ref> while others consider that such an alliance was never really achieved and ended in failure.<ref>Authors who consider that an alliance was never really achieved and ended in failure:<br>
+
*Tyerman, p. 816. "The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere."
+
*"The possibility of an alliance between the il-khans and the Franks was explored by both parties. . . Contacts between the two were quite frequent and aimed at establishing a coordination of eastern and western forces to counterbalance the formidable Mamluk threat. . . For a number of reasons which it cannot be our task to analyze here, the alliance between the il-khans and the West failed to become operative." Sinor, Denis. "Mongols and the West" in ''Journal of Asian History''[http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/sinor1.htm]
+
*"Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam". Atwood, ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', p. 583, "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire"</ref> In this context, the term [[Franks]] designates all western Europeans, but especially those associated with the [[Crusader States]])<ref>Between the 11th to the 15th century, the [[Crusaders]] were usually called Franks. More broadly the term applied to any persons originating in Catholic western Europe (medieval Middle Eastern history). The term led to derived usage by other cultures, such as [[Farangi]], [[firang]], [[farang]] and [[barang]]. "The term [Frank] was used by all the populations of the eastern Mediterranean to designate the totality of the Crusaders as well as the settlers" ''Atlas des Croisades'',1996, Jonathan Riley-Smith, ISBN 2862605530</ref> and the [[Mongols]] are those of the [[Il-Khanate]], located in [[Persia]]. This alliance occured in the mid-1200s to the early 1300s.
+
  
 
Historians note that in hindsight, an alliance between the Mongols and the Franks often appears a logical choice.<ref name=atwood-583/><ref>"In later years Christian chroniclers would bemoan a lost opportunity in which Crusaders and Mongols might have joined forces to defeat the Muslims. But they were writing from the benefit of hindsight, after the Crusader States had been destroyed by the Muslim Mamluks." Nicolle, David, ''The Mongol Warlords'', p. 114</ref><ref name=jackson-4>""The failure of Ilkhanid-Western negotiations, and the reasons for it, are of particular importance in view of the widespread belief in the past that they might well have succeeded." Jackson, Peter ''Mongols and the West'', p. 4</ref> The Mongols were already very sympathetic to Christianity as many Mongols were [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christians]].  The Europeans were open to the idea of assistance coming from the East, due to the longrunning legend of a mythical [[Prester John]], an Eastern king in a magical kingdom who many believed would arrive someday to help with the fight in the Holy Land.  The Mongols and the Franks also shared a common enemy in the [[Muslim]]s. There were numerous exchanges of letters, gifts and emissaries between the Mongols and the Europeans as well as offers for varying types of cooperation.<ref name=atwood-583/> However, despite many attempts, there was never any successful military collaboration.<ref name=jackson-170>"Arghun had persisted in the quest for a Western alliance right down to his death without ever taking the field against the mutual enemy." Jackson, ''Mongols and the West'', p. 170</ref> Modern historians also debate whether or not such an alliance, if it had been successful, would have been effective in shifting the balance of power in the region, and/or whether or not it would have been a wise choice on the part of the Europeans.<ref>See ''History in Dispute: The Crusades, 1095-1291'' where the question that is debated is, "Would a Latin-Ilkhan Mongol alliance have strengthened and preserved the Crusader States?'"[http://www.ecampus.com/book/1558624546]</ref> Traditionally, the Mongols tended to see outside parties as either subjects, or enemies, with little room in the middle for something such as an ally.
 
Historians note that in hindsight, an alliance between the Mongols and the Franks often appears a logical choice.<ref name=atwood-583/><ref>"In later years Christian chroniclers would bemoan a lost opportunity in which Crusaders and Mongols might have joined forces to defeat the Muslims. But they were writing from the benefit of hindsight, after the Crusader States had been destroyed by the Muslim Mamluks." Nicolle, David, ''The Mongol Warlords'', p. 114</ref><ref name=jackson-4>""The failure of Ilkhanid-Western negotiations, and the reasons for it, are of particular importance in view of the widespread belief in the past that they might well have succeeded." Jackson, Peter ''Mongols and the West'', p. 4</ref> The Mongols were already very sympathetic to Christianity as many Mongols were [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christians]].  The Europeans were open to the idea of assistance coming from the East, due to the longrunning legend of a mythical [[Prester John]], an Eastern king in a magical kingdom who many believed would arrive someday to help with the fight in the Holy Land.  The Mongols and the Franks also shared a common enemy in the [[Muslim]]s. There were numerous exchanges of letters, gifts and emissaries between the Mongols and the Europeans as well as offers for varying types of cooperation.<ref name=atwood-583/> However, despite many attempts, there was never any successful military collaboration.<ref name=jackson-170>"Arghun had persisted in the quest for a Western alliance right down to his death without ever taking the field against the mutual enemy." Jackson, ''Mongols and the West'', p. 170</ref> Modern historians also debate whether or not such an alliance, if it had been successful, would have been effective in shifting the balance of power in the region, and/or whether or not it would have been a wise choice on the part of the Europeans.<ref>See ''History in Dispute: The Crusades, 1095-1291'' where the question that is debated is, "Would a Latin-Ilkhan Mongol alliance have strengthened and preserved the Crusader States?'"[http://www.ecampus.com/book/1558624546]</ref> Traditionally, the Mongols tended to see outside parties as either subjects, or enemies, with little room in the middle for something such as an ally.
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* [[History of printing]]
 
* [[History of printing]]
 
* [[Al-'Āḍid]], the teenaged Muslim caliph in Egypt, who entered into an alliance with the Christians in the 1100s
 
* [[Al-'Āḍid]], the teenaged Muslim caliph in Egypt, who entered into an alliance with the Christians in the 1100s
 
{{Mongol Empire}}
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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{{reflist|2}}
 
{{reflist|2}}
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==Footnotes==
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#More broadly the term applied to any persons originating in Catholic western Europe (medieval Middle Eastern history). The term led to derived usage by other cultures, such as [[Farangi]], [[firang]], [[farang]] and [[barang]]. "The term [Frank] was used by all the populations of the eastern Mediterranean to designate the totality of the Crusaders as well as the settlers" ''Atlas des Croisades'',1996, Jonathan Riley-Smith, ISBN 2862605530
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
===Actual event===
 +
Authors presenting the alliance as an actual occurence:
 +
*[[René Grousset]] mentions especially "Louis IX and the Franco-Mongol alliance" (p521), "Only Edward I understood the value of the Mongol alliance" (p.653) "Edward I and the Mongol alliance" (p.653), "Edward I renewed the precious Mongol Alliance" (in "L'épopée des Croisades", p.301), "The Franco-Mongol coalition, of which the Hospitallers were giving the example" (p.686)
 +
*[[Jean Richard (historian)|Jean Richard]] in ''Histoire des Croisades'', has the Franco-Mongol alliance start in earnest in the 1260s ("The sustained attacks of Baibars (...) rallied the Occidentals to this alliance, to which the Mongols also convinced the Byzantines to adhere", in "Histoire des Croisades", p.453.) and continue on-and-off until it was strongly revived by Ghazan, to continue to have an influence until 1322 ("In 1297 Ghazan resumes his projects against Egypt (...) the Franco-Mongol cooperation had thus survived, to the loss of Acre by the Franks, and to the conversion of the khan to Islam. It was to remain one of the political factors of the policy of the Crusades, until the peace treaty with the Mamluks, which was concluded in 1322 by khan Abu Said." in "Histoire des Croisades", p.468). He concludes on the many missed opportunities the alliance offered: "The Franco-Mongol alliance (...) seems to have been rich with missed opportunities" in "Histoire des Croisades", 1996, Jean Richard, p.469
 +
*'''Reuven Amitai-Preiss''' in ''Mongols and Mamluks'' writes that "Under Bohemond VI, the northern Franks maintained their unequivocal pro-Mongol alliance after 'Ayn Jālūt" (p.54). She also writes about the "Mongol-Frankish rapprochement" (''Mamluk perceptions of the Mongol-Frankish rapprochement'', MHR 7 (1992), p.50-65)
 +
*'''Dr. Martin Sicker''', in ''The Islamic World Ascendancy'' (p.113): "[[Kitbuqa|Ket-Buqa]] and Bohemond VI fully appreciated the mutual advantages of the Frank-Mongol alliance".
 +
*[[Jean-Paul Roux]], in ''Histoire de l'Empire Mongol'' ISBN 2213031649, has a chapter on the "Frank alliance" with the Mongols. He describes the continuation of this alliance until the time of [[Oljeitu]]: "The Occident was reassured that the Mongol alliance had not ceased with the conversion of the Khans to Islam. However, this alliance could not have ceased. The Mamelouks, through their repeated military actions, were becoming a strong enough danger to force Iran to maintain relations with Europe.", p.437
 +
*[[Claude Mutafian]] in ''Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie'' describes "the Mongol alliance" entered into by the king of Armenia and the Franks of Antioch ("the King of Armenia decided to engage into the Mongol alliance, an intelligence that the Latin barons lacked, except for Antioch"), and "the Franco-Mongol collaboration" (Mutafian, p.55)
 +
*[[Zoe Oldenbourg]] in ''The Crusades'' mentions the 1280 "Alliance of Franks and Mongols against Qalawun". (Oldenbourg, "The Crusades", p.620)
 +
*[[Alain Demurger]], in the 2002 [[Jacques de Molay]] biography ''The Last Templar'', refers to it as the "Mongol alliance", which came to fruition through such events as the 1300 combined offensives between the Templars and the Mongols.(Demurger, p.147 "This expedition sealed by a concrete act the Mongol alliance"), "The strategy of the Mongol alliance in action(Demurger p.145) "De Molay led the fight for the reconquest of Jerusalem by relying on an alliance with the Mongols", back cover)
 +
*'''Jonathan Riley-Smith''' mentions in his ''Atlas of the Crusades'' that in 1285 the Hospitallers of the north agreed to ally to the Mongols.("En 1285, Qalawun, nouveau sultan mamelouk, reprend l'offensive, qu'il dirige contre les Hospitaliers du nord, qui s'etaient montres prets a s'allier aux Mongols", Jonathan Riley-Smith, "Atlas des Croisades", p.114) He also describes Bohemond's alliance with the Mongols: "Bohemond VI of Antioch-Tripoli became their [the Mongol's] ally", in ''History of the Crusades'', p.136
 +
*[[Laurent Dailliez]], in ''Les Templiers'', mentions that the [[Knights Templar]] allied with the Mongols, and that [[Jacques de Molay]] signed a treaty with them against the Muslim "their common enemy".("The Mongols, after taking Damascus and several important cities from the Turks, after having been routed by the Sultan of Egypt at Tiberiade in 1260, allied themselves with the Templars. Jacques de Molay, in his letter to the king of England said that he had to sign such a treaty to fight against the Muslims, "our common enemy"" Dailliez, p.306-307)
 +
*'''Christopher Tyerman''', in ''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'', does mention the existence of "The Mongol alliance", although he specifies that in the end it led nowhere,("The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere" p.816) and turned out to be a "false hope for Outremer as for the rest of Christendom." (pp. 798-799) He further describes successes and failures of this alliance from 1248 to 1291, with Louis IX's early attempts at capturing "the chimera of a Franco-Mongol anti-Islamic alliance", Bohemond VI's alliance with the Mongols and their joint victories, and Edward's largely unsuccessful attempts.
 +
*[[Peter Jackson]] in ''The Mongols and the West'' entitles a whole chapter "An ally against Islam: the Mongols in the Near East" and describes all the viscicitudes and the actual limited results of the Mongol alliance.
 +
*'''Claude Lebedel''' in ''Les Croisades'' describes the alliance of the Franks of Antioch and Tripoli with the Mongols: (in 1260) "the Frank barons refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the Armenians and the Prince of Antioch and Tripoli".
 +
*[[Amin Maalouf]] in ''The Crusades through Arab eyes'' is extensive and specific on the alliance (page numbers refer to the French edition): “The Armenians, in the person of their king Hetoum, sided with the Mongols, as well as Prince Bohemond, his son-in-law. The Franks of Acre however adopted a position of neutrality favourable to the muslims” (p.261), “Bohemond of Antioch and Hethoum of Armenia, principal allies of the Mongols” (p.265), “Hulagu (…) still had enough strength to prevent the punishment of his allies [Bohemond and Hethoum]” (p.267), “..the Hospitallers. These monk-horsemen allied with the Mongols, going as far as fighting at their side in a new attempt at invasion in 1281."
 +
*'''Sylvia Schein''' in ''Gesta Dei per Mongolos'' describes the Templars, Hospitallers and crusaders of Cyprus as allies of the Mongols in the campaings of 1300-1302: "They (the Templars, Hospitallers and crusaders of Cyprus) sailed to the island of Ruad, and, from that base, captured Tortosa, but retired a few days later when their allies (the Mongols) did not appear.", p.811
 +
*'''Patrick Huchet''' in ''Les Templiers, une fabuleuse epopee'' relates that "Jacques de Molay, elected Master in 1292, associated himself with the Mongols to set up military operations on the island of Ruad (near Tortose)."'''
 +
*'''E. L. Skip Knox''', Boise State University, in ''The Fall of Outremer'' [http://crusades.boisestate.edu/FallOfOutremer/05.shtml online]: "Some of the Crusader States wanted to form an alliance with the Mongols, while others weren't so sure. The allure of destroying Egypt was great, but the Mongols were pretty scary allies. In the end, Armenia and Antioch joined, along with the Templars and Hospitallers." also [http://crusades.boisestate.edu/FallOfOutremer/08.shtml here]: "A double army marched down from the north and east, crossing the Euphrates in 1281. Qalavun marched north and they met near Homs on 30 October. Once again, Christians fought alongside the Mongols (the Hospitallers and the Armenians this time)".
 +
*'''Martin Sicker''' in ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'' (Page 113) focuses on the first invasion of Syria in 1258-1260 and mentions an end to the Franco-Mongol alliance after the events of Sidon: "Suitably provoked, the Mongols responded by pillaging Sidon, thereby bringing an effective end to the Frank-Mongol alliance."
 +
*'''Emmanuel Berl''' in ''Histoire de l'Europe'' (p. 219) writes about the "Franco-Mongol rapprochement".
 +
*'''Bernard de Vaulx''' in ''History of the Missions'' (p. 53) writes about the Franco- Mongol alliance.
 +
*'''Peter W. Edbury ''' in ''The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191-1374'' (p. 92) mentions the Franco-Mongol alliance, and gives as an example that the Mongol staged an attack to coincide with the Frank offensive during the Crusade of Edward I. 
 +
*''Encyclopedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature..'', p.100: "The fact that the Mongols were in ostensible alliance with Christians princes led to a renewal by the sultan of the ordinances against Jews and Christians."</ref> while others consider that such an alliance was never really achieved and ended in failure.<ref>Authors who consider that an alliance was never really achieved and ended in failure:<br>
 +
*Tyerman, p. 816. "The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere."
 +
*"The possibility of an alliance between the il-khans and the Franks was explored by both parties. . . Contacts between the two were quite frequent and aimed at establishing a coordination of eastern and western forces to counterbalance the formidable Mamluk threat. . . For a number of reasons which it cannot be our task to analyze here, the alliance between the il-khans and the West failed to become operative." Sinor, Denis. "Mongols and the West" in ''Journal of Asian History''[http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/sinor1.htm]
 +
*"Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam". Atwood, ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', p. 583, "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire"
 
===Medieval sources===
 
===Medieval sources===
 
*Adh-Dhababi, ''Record of the Destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 1299-1301'' Translated by Joseph Somogyi. From: Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Part 1, [http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/somogyi1.htm Online] (English translation).
 
*Adh-Dhababi, ''Record of the Destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 1299-1301'' Translated by Joseph Somogyi. From: Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Part 1, [http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/somogyi1.htm Online] (English translation).
Line 589: Line 592:
  
 
===Modern sources===
 
===Modern sources===
*{{cite journal|author=Amitai, Reuven|title=Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)|journal=[[JRAS]]|date=1987|pages=236-255}}
+
*Amitai, Reuven ; Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300). JRAS, 1987, pages=236-255
*{{cite book|author=Balard, Michel|authorlink=|title=Les Latins en Orient (XIe-XVe siècle)|edition=|date=2006|publisher=Presses Universitaires de France, Paris|isbn=2130518117}}
+
*Balard, Michel ; Les Latins en Orient (XIe-XVe siècle) 2006. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris ISBN 2130518117
*{{cite book|author=Barber, Malcolm|authorlink=Malcolm Barber|title=The Trial of the Templars|edition=2nd edition|date=2001|publisher=University Press, Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-67236-8}}
+
*Barber, Malcolm ; The Trial of the Templars, 2nd edition. 2001. University Press, Cambridge ISBN 978-0-521-67236-8
* {{cite book|author=Bournoutian, George A.|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=1568591411}}
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*Bournoutian, George A. ; A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present. 2002. Mazda Publishers ISBN 1568591411
 
*"The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China", Sir E. A. Wallis Budge. [http://www.aina.org/books/mokk/mokk.htm Online]
 
*"The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China", Sir E. A. Wallis Budge. [http://www.aina.org/books/mokk/mokk.htm Online]
*{{cite book|title=Les Templiers|author=[[Laurent Dailliez|Dailliez, Laurent]]|language=French|publisher=Editions Perrin|date=1972|isbn=2-262-02006-X}}
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*Les Templiers ; Laurent Dailliez (in French).Editions Perrin. 1972 ISBN 2-262-02006-X
 
*{{cite book|title=Les Templiers|author=[[Alain Demurger|Demurger, Alain]]|language=French|publisher=Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot|date=2007|isbn=2877479552}}
 
*{{cite book|title=Les Templiers|author=[[Alain Demurger|Demurger, Alain]]|language=French|publisher=Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot|date=2007|isbn=2877479552}}
 
*{{cite book|title=Histoire des Croisades III, 1188-1291|author=Grousset, René|language=French|publisher=Editions Perrin|date=1935|isbn=2-262-02569-X}}
 
*{{cite book|title=Histoire des Croisades III, 1188-1291|author=Grousset, René|language=French|publisher=Editions Perrin|date=1935|isbn=2-262-02569-X}}

Latest revision as of 22:01, 19 November 2010

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